Gold nanoparticles or AuNPs are only a fraction of the size of human hair and are less than 100 nm in diameter. Gold nanoparticles are very small and usually exist in the form of colloidal solution, which means that gold nanoparticles are suspended in a liquid buffer. Therefore, gold nanoparticles or gold nanoparticles are also called colloidal gold. In addition, gold nanoparticles usually exist in colloidal solutions because gold nanoparticles are synthesized by citrate. This process involves mixing the solution together to cause gold nanoparticles to precipitate into the solution.

Nano-gold is not the gold you are familiar with in gold jewelry. Colloidal gold solution is not a gold metal color, but from transparent to blue to red. The tiny nanoscale size of these particles changed the properties of gold so much that it became a material different from the bulk metal used in jewelry.

When solid crystal materials enter the nanometer range, they begin to show very different properties from their volume properties. The same is true of superparamagnetic iron oxide nanoparticles and gold nanoparticles. Bulk iron oxide (Fe2O 3) is a permanent magnet, but nano-sized iron oxide particles are not permanent magnets. They are superparamagnetic, which means they are not magnetic unless they are placed in a magnetic field. Superparamagnetic iron oxide nanoparticles are highly sensitive to the change of magnetic field and react quickly. Gold nanoparticles have interesting optical properties when the diameter is less than 100 nm. The wavelengths of visible light range roughly from about 400 nm blue to about 700 nm red. The metal properties of gold allow a phenomenon called surface plasmon resonance (SPR) to occur when light interacts with the surface of gold nanoparticles.

Surface plasmon resonance

Surface plasmon resonance (SPR) occurs when the incident light wave triggers the surface electron wave to pass through the metal surface. The light can then be coupled to the surface wave. This is also known as surface plasmon. Therefore, part of the light irradiated on the gold nanoparticles is absorbed, part is transmitted, and the other part is scattered. The color of the colloid depends on the size of a single nanoparticle; the larger the particle, the redder the solution. In addition, the aggregation of nanoparticles can lead to changes in the color of the solution, which are sometimes violent enough to be seen by the naked eye, but are always captured by changes in absorbance in spectroscopy. This property makes gold nanoparticles a useful component of modern diagnostic techniques.

Gold nanoparticles can be functionalized on the surface to achieve aggregation in the presence of analytes. If there is an analyte in the sample, the gold nanoparticles will accumulate, which will lead to a change in color or at least a change in absorbance.

Geometrical shape of gold nanoparticles

Gold nanoparticles can be synthesized into a variety of shapes, including nanorods, bicones, gold nanoshells, nanobowls, spiked nanoshells, tetrahedrons, octahedrons, cubes and cages. Sometimes gold can be the shell that surrounds the core of silica nanoparticles, and sometimes gold nanoparticles are covered with silver. It all depends on the application they target. Size and shape determine how light interacts with materials.

Surface plasmon resonance biosensor.

The surface plasmon resonance observed with gold nanoparticles is also the core of the SPR biosensor. The tool is used to detect antigen-antibody binding. In this case, the antibody binds to the gold sensor chip. Polarized single-wavelength light irradiates the surface of the chip at a specified angle. Electromagnetic waves are coupled to metal-conducted electron oscillations at resonant wavelengths partially determined by the refractive index of the surface. When the antigen binds to the antibody on the gold surface, the refractive index changes, which leads to a change in resonance wavelength. This change in resonance wavelength can be quantified and related to the amount of target antigen in the sample.

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A lubricant is a substance that helps to reduce friction between surfaces that come into contact with each other, resulting in a reduction in the amount of heat generated as the surface moves. According to the different physical state, it can be divided into four types: solid type, gas type, liquid type and semi-solid type.

Typical solid lubricants include molybdenum disulfide (MoS2) powder, tungsten disulfide (WS2) powder, etc.

Molybdenum Disulfide MoS2

The main reason why molybdenum disulfide powder can be used as a solid lubricant is that it has a layered structure, and the binding force of sulfur atoms between layers (van der Waals force) is weak and easy to slide, thus showing a good antifriction effect; the sulfur atoms exposed on the crystal surface have a strong adhesion to the metal surface, forming a very strong film, so that its lubrication performance is better than that of graphite.

In addition, MoS2 powder has the advantages of good heat resistance and oxidation resistance, so it is more suitable to work in space and other vacuum than graphite. However, when using MoS2 powder as a lubricant, attention should be paid to the purity and particle size of the powder. Generally speaking, the lubrication performance of molybdenum disulfide powder with small particle size and high purity is better.

Tungsten Disulfide WS2

Tungsten disulfide powder is also a common solid lubricant, and its overall performance is better than that of molybdenum disulfide powder, so it can completely replace MoS2 powder in many cases, especially in high temperature environment.

The main reason why WS2 powder has good lubrication performance is that in the crystal structure, the S-W-S layer is bonded by a strong covalent bond, while the layer to layer is combined by a weak van der Waals force, so the layer and layer are easy to peel off, so that the material has a lower friction coefficient. In addition to having a lower friction coefficient than MoS2 powder (friction coefficient is 0.050.09 and lubrication temperature -185C-350C), it also has a wider range of lubrication temperature of-273C-650C.

Generally speaking, the tribological properties of WS2 powder are better than those of MoS2 powder at high temperature. However, at room temperature, the film-forming state of WS2 coating on metal substrate is not as good as that of MoS2 coating.

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Chinese researchers have recently reported an innovative mechanical process for controllable stripping of hexagonal boron nitride nanowires (h-BNNSs). This method is called "water ice triggered stripping process".

H-BNNSs has a honeycomb structure similar to graphene and has excellent chemical and physical properties such as high thermal conductivity good oxidation resistance remarkable mechanical strength low dielectric constant excellent lubricity excellent biocompatibility and optical properties.

In view of these properties, h-BNNS is a promising material for a variety of applications, including high-performance electronic devices, dielectric substrates, thermal management, lubrication, sensors, catalysts and adsorbents. Therefore, there is an urgent need to develop a simple, controllable and scalable method to produce high-quality h-BNNS for commercial applications.

In their new study, Zhang and his team proposed a scalable and controllable way to strip high-quality h-BNNS from h-BN slices.

"this method relies on effectively reducing the h-BNNS interlayer interaction through the rapid volume expansion of water in ice," Zhang said.

In general, h-BNNS can be prepared by chemical vapor deposition (CVD) and physical exfoliation. CVD can produce wafer-level single crystal monolayer h-BNNSs, while physical stripping process can achieve large-scale production of small-size h-BNNSs.

Based on molecular dynamics simulations, the researchers proposed that the-OH group will lead to the local structural deformation of the defect / edge of the h-BN sheet, thus forming the "entrance" for water molecules to enter the h-BNNS interlayer. This in turn provides a sufficient number of relatively long-lived hydrogen bonds that can produce fairly compact initial nuclei for ice nuclei.

The shape and size of the initial nuclei then slowly change until they reach a stage where rapid expansion is allowed as the temperature drops sharply. This results in an increase in interlayer spacing and a decrease in interlayer force between adjacent h-BNNS layers, as well as effective stripping of h-BNNS during subsequent ultrasonic treatment.

"by adjusting the parameters, this stripping process can be used to produce a large number of different high-quality h-BNNS," said Dr. An Lulu, lead author of the study.

"this method provides an environmentally friendly way to peel off h-BNNSs with controllable thickness through rapid water freezing and subsequent ultrasonic treatment. These obtained h-BNNSs can be used as polymer additives, thermal conductive fillers and flame retardants, "said Professor Yu Yuanlie, the study's newsletter author.

The study was published on Cell Reports Physical Science.

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Silicon nitride ceramic is a kind of synthetic material with strong covalent bond force between silicon and nitrogen atoms in its structure, so it has the characteristics of high strength, high hardness, corrosion resistance, oxidation resistance, wear resistance and good thermal shock resistance. It is considered to be a kind of engineering ceramic material with excellent comprehensive properties and can be used in the field of high temperature.

Silicon nitride properties

Silicon nitride ceramics have high fracture toughness and room temperature strength, even at high temperature, its strength will not decrease much, and its high temperature stability is good.

The properties of silicon nitride include:

1. Silicon nitride material has low linear expansion coefficient, good thermal conductivity and excellent thermal shock resistance.

2. The hardness of silicon nitride is very high, which is 99.5%, second only to a few superhard materials such as diamond and BN.

3. Silicon nitride has low friction coefficient, self-lubrication and wear resistance.

4. Silicon nitride has good mechanical properties, hot pressing and reaction sintering samples can obtain higher bending strength, even as high as thousands of MPA. It has good stability at high temperature, high bending strength at high temperature and little creep at high temperature.

5. Silicon nitride material has good insulation properties and is a good insulator material at high temperature.

6. The chemical property of silicon nitride is very stable, it is not eroded by all inorganic acids except hydrofluoric acid, and it can also exist stably in some bases.

7. When silicon nitride ceramics are oxidized, a dense silicon dioxide film is easily formed on the surface, which hinders the continued oxidation of silicon nitride ceramics. Its oxidation resistance temperature can reach 1400 ℃, and it can be used up to 1870 ℃ in reduction atmosphere.

8. Silicon nitride is not wetted with high temperature metal solution and molten slag, so it can be used as high temperature metal solution filter and excellent slag resistant material.

Silicon Nitride Uses in Refractory Industry

Silicon nitride ceramics are considered to be promising high temperature structural materials because of their excellent high temperature properties, such as high temperature strength, good wear resistance and corrosion resistance.

Due to the strong covalent bond and low diffusion coefficient at high temperature, silicon nitride ceramics must be manufactured with the help of high temperature, high pressure and sintering agent, otherwise it is difficult to produce high quality silicon nitride materials.

Silicon nitride generally exists in the form of bonding phase in refractories. Through nitriding and firing of metal Si, corundum or silicon carbide and other raw materials are combined together to achieve the purpose of combining difficult sintering materials. For example, silicon nitride bonded silicon carbide materials used in aluminum reduction cells are all bonded with nitrided Si3N4, and Si3N4 is often introduced into refractories in the form of powder.

1. Used in ironmaking refractories

In recent years, corundum-silicon carbide-silicon nitride-carbon products used in large blast furnaces have made great progress. Silicon nitride, silicon oxynitride or Cylon-bonded silicon carbide refractory products have been widely used in the middle part of large blast furnace and the load-bearing part of coke oven. In addition, corundum-silicon carbide-silicon nitride-carbon refractories are more and more used in torpedo cars, with good corrosion resistance, wear resistance and erosion resistance, and the service life of torpedo lining refractories is greatly improved.

2. Used in steelmaking refractories

In recent years, silicon nitride has been used in the skateboard at the bottom of the ladle. The addition of silicon nitride material to the skateboard improves the wear resistance, erosion resistance and service life of the skateboard, and reduces the cost of per ton steel for ladle refining.

3. Used in smelting refractories of aluminum, copper, zinc and other non-ferrous metals

Silicon nitride ceramic does not wet with metal solution at high temperature, so it can be used in high temperature components of non-ferrous metal smelting process, such as temperature measuring thermocouple casing, smelting furnace lining and various container linings, crucibles and so on. Silicon nitride ceramic products have good thermal shock resistance and can be used stably for a long time at high temperature or in high temperature-low temperature cycle.

4. Used in kiln furniture materials

Ceramic shed plate is a kind of silicon nitride bonded silicon carbide material prepared by reaction sintering with silicon carbide as particle raw material and metal Si as fine powder in high temperature nitrogen atmosphere, which greatly improves the properties of the material. Compared with the clay bonded silicon carbide panel, the high temperature performance of the material is greatly improved, and the problem of bulging failure caused by the oxidation of silicon carbide in the use of clay bonded silicon carbide is solved.

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Silicon nitride is considered to be a very important engineering ceramic because it is suitable for many different forms, each of which has unique characteristics. At high temperature, silicon nitride shows excellent mechanical properties, including low density, high bending strength, high elastic modulus and fracture toughness, high wear and resistance to solid particles. In other words, this material is very strong, very tough. The material also shows excellent thermal properties with minimal expansion and shrinkage caused by temperature and is able to withstand thermal shock (rapid and significant temperature changes). Finally, silicon nitride has excellent chemical properties, including stability to most acids and bases, corrosive gases and liquid metals.

Rolling contact fatigue (RCF) tests of several ceramic-based materials bearing high-performance bearing loads show that only completely dense silicon nitride can outperform bearing steel. The fully dense Si3N4 bearing material shows that the service life of RCF is ten times longer than that of high performance bearing steel. A high-speed rotating body may lead to significant centrifugal stress. As a low-density material, silicon nitride is as light as aluminum. However, this property also brings another benefit to the material. The low density of silicon nitride reduces the centrifugal stress on the high-speed rotating outer ring. The high tensile strength of silicon nitride ceramics can resist elongation and provide excellent bending strength to withstand yield or fracture under increased transverse stress. Fully dense Si 3N 4 also exhibits high fracture toughness and high modulus, which makes the material have excellent resistance to a variety of wear phenomena. This enables it to withstand harsh operating conditions that may lead to cracks, deformation or collapse of other ceramic materials.

In addition to excellent mechanical properties, silicon nitride also exhibits a range of excellent thermal properties, making it suitable for demanding industrial applications. Thermal conductivity is the inherent ability of a material to transfer or conduct heat. Heat transfer coefficient is a key factor to characterize the applicability of engineering materials for any industrial application under extreme temperature requirements. Because of its unique chemical composition and microstructure, silicon nitride has the same low thermal conductivity as metal.

These properties enable silicon nitride to significantly reduce the thermal conductivity in extreme temperature applications. Thermal expansion is another problem that occurs when materials are heated and their size and volume increase in small increments. This expansion depends on the material being heated. The degree of expansion of the material with each increase of 1 °C is expressed by the ratio of its thermal expansion coefficient. The strong atomic bond of silicon nitride makes this material have a low coefficient of thermal expansion, which makes its deformation value with temperature very low.

Compared with other ceramics, the radio frequency (RF) characteristics of silicon nitride will not be greatly affected in high-speed applications because of its excellent thermal quality. Silicon nitride is the material of choice for a variety of radio frequency applications because of its moderate dielectric constant (the ability of a substance to store electrical energy in an electric field) and low radio frequency loss, as well as excellent strength and heat resistance.

It is the unique combination of characteristics of silicon nitride that leads to further research on its use as structural ceramics in biomedical applications. The biocompatibility of silicon nitride was established as early as the late 1980s, which was confirmed by initial in vitro studies and subsequent studies involving implanting silicon nitride into animals. A 1999 study further supported the claim of silicon nitride for the biocompatibility of functional human osteocyte proliferation in vivo (in vitro). These findings further promote silicon nitride as a new biomedical material. In addition to its biocompatibility, silicon nitride is known to have surface chemical properties that facilitate bone formation (osteogenesis) and increase bone contact with implants.

Silicon nitride has excellent stability because of its strong atomic bond, which makes the material resistant to corrosion in acidic and alkaline solutions at room temperature. This is crucial when considering long-term implantation in a watery and salty environment. The corrosion resistance is mainly attributed to the formation of oxide layer on the surface of the material. The same resistance was observed when silicon nitride was placed in hot gases, molten salts and metals and corrosion tests were carried out in complex environments. The formation of oxide layer plays a core and complex role in the corrosion resistance of materials.

Because of its self-reinforced microstructure, high strength and toughness and many excellent properties, silicon nitride has become an attractive structural component for many applications in various industries, including biomedical applications.

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Silicon carbide for military bulletproof armor

Silicon carbide is used to make bulletproof armor. The property of this compound that makes it suitable for this purpose is its hardness. Bullets and other harmful objects will have to compete with hard ceramic blocks formed by silicon carbide. The bullet can't penetrate the ceramic block.

Silicon carbide for semiconductors

After adding the dopant, the silicon carbide becomes a semiconductor. Dopants such as boron and aluminum added to silicon carbide make it a p-type semiconductor. On the other hand, nitrogen, phosphorus and other dopants are added to silicon carbide to make it an n-type semiconductor. You can read this article for more information about the differences between p-type semiconductors and n-type semiconductors.

Silicon carbide for abrasive

Silicon carbide is usually used as an abrasive because of its hardness. It is used to make grinding wheels, cutting tools and sandpaper. Silicon carbide abrasives are usually cheaper than other abrasives of similar quality. Abrasives are used to grind materials such as steel, aluminum, cast iron and rubber.

Silicon Carbide for Electric vehicles

Compared with silicon, silicon carbide is a better choice to power electric vehicles. Electric vehicles powered by silicon carbide are efficient and cost-effective. Well-known companies such as Tesla are using silicon carbide to make electric cars to improve efficiency and mileage.

Silicon carbide for jewelry

Silicon carbide is similar to diamond in structure. This makes it an asset of the jewelry industry. It is shinier, cheaper, more durable and lighter than diamonds. The properties of silicon carbide make it a valuable substitute for diamonds in the jewelry industry.

Silicon carbide for fuel

Silicon carbide is also used as fuel, among other uses. It is used as a fuel in the manufacture of steel and produces steel that is purer than most other fuels. It is also a cheaper and more environmentally friendly fuel.

Silicon carbide used in LED

The first set of light-emitting diodes (LED) produced using silicon carbide technology. It is used to make blue, red and yellow LED. LED is used for televisions, display panels, and computers.

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Scientists use monolayer molybdenum disulfide (MoS2) to create a flexible sensor that solves the problem of real-time temperature detection sensitivity, which can sense temperature changes in a few microseconds, about 100 times faster than commonly used thin-film metal detectors.

Many biomedical systems, pollution management and safety-critical machine control systems require fast and reliable thermal readings. Flexible sensor components usually need to be directly connected to human tissue or curved surfaces in order to obtain consistent and accurate data readings in real-time thermal detection systems.

Therefore, the implementation of next-generation temperature detectors on an extremely thin, uniform and flexible platform is essential to enhance interaction with biomaterials and to easily implant sensors in degradable packaging or electrical components.

Flexible temperature sensors based on two-dimensional (2D) materials have recently shown great promise in a variety of applications, including portable electronic products, robotic systems, medical services and prosthetics. Because of the non-toxic and biocompatibility of many two-dimensional materials, flexible sensors based on these materials can be used for real-time thermal sensing of implantable electronic products.

Two-dimensional (2D) nanomaterials, such as graphene and carbon nanotubes (CNTs), have recently become promising candidates for flexible thermal detectors with special response capabilities. However, two-dimensional (2D) semiconductors such as molybdenum disulfide (MoS2) are almost undeveloped in such applications, but have not received much attention.

Recent studies on molybdenum disulfide show that molybdenum disulfide has great potential as a new sensing material. Molybdenum disulfide has good cytocompatibility and high thermal resistance coefficient (TCR), but its real-time sensing efficiency and array integration ability need to be studied. In this study, the researchers used recently developed direct transfer technology to create a flexible sensor from atomic molybdenum disulfide for rapid and accurate thermal detection.

In order to achieve this flexible sensor, chemical vapor deposition is used to create a consistent monolayer molybdenum disulfide sheet. Before the molybdenum disulfide film is transported to the flexible platform, the gold contact is deposited and the molybdenum disulfide coating is structured. The surface is then spun with a 5 micron thick bendable polyimide (PI) substrate. This results in a very low surface roughness on the molybdenum disulfide surface.

The researchers also built 4x4's molybdenum disulfide temperature detector panel to demonstrate the feasibility of this unique material in the production of low-cost sensors for real-time temperature monitoring.

The researchers found that the thermal reaction time of the sensor was 36 microseconds, many orders of magnitude faster than the traditional thin-film metal sensor. Thermal analysis shows that the contact and packaging of molybdenum disulfide completely limit the reaction time of the flexible sensor. It runs stably during the cycle and has the ability of long-term thermal measurement when covered with alumina.

The contact of the molybdenum disulfide surface with air and water usually takes several minutes to precipitate, which can be attributed to the continuous increase in the electrical conductivity of the uncovered sensor after heating. On the other hand, the alumina cover is sufficient to passivate the molybdenum disulfide surface and stabilize the reaction of the flexible sensor.

In short, fast temperature detection is very important for real-time readout of large panels. For example, detect microsecond temperature changes in power electronic equipment to avoid mechanical damage. The study could use atomic semiconductors such as MoS2 to develop real-time temperature sensors.

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Chinese researchers have recently reported an innovative mechanical process for controllable stripping of hexagonal boron nitride nanowires (h-BNNSs). This method is called "water ice triggered stripping process".

H-BNNSs has a honeycomb structure similar to graphene and has excellent chemical and physical properties such as high thermal conductivity good oxidation resistance remarkable mechanical strength low dielectric constant excellent lubricity excellent biocompatibility and optical properties.

In view of these properties, h-BNNS is a promising material for a variety of applications, including high-performance electronic devices, dielectric substrates, thermal management, lubrication, sensors, catalysts and adsorbents. Therefore, there is an urgent need to develop a simple, controllable and scalable method to produce high-quality h-BNNS for commercial applications.

In their new study, Zhang and his team proposed a scalable and controllable way to strip high-quality h-BNNS from h-BN slices.

"this method relies on effectively reducing the h-BNNS interlayer interaction through the rapid volume expansion of water in ice," Zhang said.

In general, h-BNNS can be prepared by chemical vapor deposition (CVD) and physical exfoliation. CVD can produce wafer-level single crystal monolayer h-BNNSs, while physical stripping process can achieve large-scale production of small-size h-BNNSs.

Based on molecular dynamics simulations, the researchers proposed that the-OH group will lead to the local structural deformation of the defect / edge of the h-BN sheet, thus forming the "entrance" for water molecules to enter the h-BNNS interlayer. This in turn provides a sufficient number of relatively long-lived hydrogen bonds that can produce fairly compact initial nuclei for ice nuclei.

The shape and size of the initial nuclei then slowly change until they reach a stage where rapid expansion is allowed as the temperature drops sharply. This results in an increase in interlayer spacing and a decrease in interlayer force between adjacent h-BNNS layers, as well as effective stripping of h-BNNS during subsequent ultrasonic treatment.

"by adjusting the parameters, this stripping process can be used to produce a large number of different high-quality h-BNNS," said Dr. An Lulu, lead author of the study.

"this method provides an environmentally friendly way to peel off h-BNNSs with controllable thickness through rapid water freezing and subsequent ultrasonic treatment. These obtained h-BNNSs can be used as polymer additives, thermal conductive fillers and flame retardants, "said Professor Yu Yuanlie, the study's newsletter author.

The study was published on Cell Reports Physical Science.

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